The present study aimed to examine the effect of export diversification on income inequality in Iran using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach and data for the period 1984 to 2018. To this end, the Gini coefficient was employed as the income inequality index and non-oil export diversification was calculated using Herfindahl-Hirschman index and considering the export value of various export goods. The results of the cointegration test show that diversification initially increases income inequality but after reaching a certain amount it causes to a decrease in income inequality. The results prove an inverted U-shape relation between income inequality and export diversification. Also, the empirical results indicate that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between per capita income and income inequality, thus confirming the Kuznets curve hypothesis. On the other hand, the empirical results show that an increase in the size of the government leads to an increase in income inequality, but the inflation rate does not have a significant effect on inequality. These findings have important policy implications in order to improve export diversification to reduce income inequality.

Nowadays, improving income diversification has become very important by changing the income portfolio from lending activities to non-lending activities and it is mentioned as a factor that strengthens the market power in banks. On the other hand, improving the market power of banks can have a significant impact on their income diversity. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between income diversity and market power in the Iranian banking system, which has been conducted using the pooled mean group (PMG) method in a sample of 18 banks in the country from the years 2012 to 2021. Market power also helps banks take advantage of growth opportunities in non-traditional businesses, which leads to an increase in the fee-based income ratio in the banks' revenue structure, and government-affiliated banks have taken advantage of these opportunities and generated more non-interest income than their private counterparts. Based on the results of the present study, there is a positive and significant relationship between the banks’  non-traditional income and market power. According to the obtained results, it is suggested that banks consider income diversification policy with special attention.

Nonfarm activities play an important role in the determination of rural household income, consumption expenditure, and household food security. However, much less studies have been devoted to the factors that influence nonfarm income diversification by farm household in developing countries. Using cross-sectional data and a probit model, this study attempts to determine the factors influencing nonfarm income diversification decisions by farm households in Central Nepal. The result reveals that household characteristics such as age, gender and education of the household head, and family size play a significant role in nonfarm work decisions. The households with larger farm size are less likely to participate in nonfarm work than their counterpart. Additionally, for those remains in the rural households, distance to road and market hinders the opportunities for nonfarm work. Finally, regional differences also exist in participating nonfarm activities among farm households. This study suggests that government policy should pay more attention on education, gender and infrastructures such as road and markets, to reduce the entry barriers and facilitate easier access to nonfarm activities. Also, nonfarm activities need to be promoted and incorporated in governmental plans and policies for balanced development between hills and terai areas.

Economic growth, defines a structure of the development of the industry that in addition achieving a higher economic growth,  the quality of a desired economic growth also creates. In this regard, the present study investigates the effect of diversification of industrial activities on income inequality using the panel data approach and the statistical evidence of Iran's provinces for the period of 2009-2019. The results of the diversification index of industrial activities show that the highest value of this index for Bushehr province is 0.8 and its lowest value for Tehran province is 0.09. In addition, the Gini coefficient in Sistan and Baluchistan province is 0.44 and in South Khorasan province it is equal to 0.33. The panel data results show that the government expenditure, education expense, and economic growth have a positive and significant effect on income inequality, and industrial concentration and the square of economic growth have a negative effect on income inequality. Therefore, the diversification of industrial activities based on the relative advantages of the region has great importance to achieve the optimal income distribution.

Agriculture is considered a driving force to reduce poverty and food insecurity. However, the agricultural sector has been unable to meet the growing food need of the rural population and it has been influenced by various risks. Although income diversification strategies supplement farmers’ farm production, the extent of households’ income diversification sources and their associated factors are not yet empirically identified in Agarfa District. Thus, this study aimed to measure income diversification strategies and identify factors responsible for the choice of income diversification strategies among rural households in the district. The study drew a sample of 150 households using the stratified random sampling technique from three kebeles of the district. Quantitative data were collected by interviews while qualitative data were collected by focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to characterize households’ income diversification strategies. Results show that agriculture has a leading contribution to the total income of households (88. 89%) followed by non‐ farm (10. 12%) and off‐ farm activities (0. 99%). Furthermore, the results reveal that the mean diversity indexes increase from households engaged in housemaid activities (36. 67) to households engaged in crop production (38320. 00). The study, therefore, concludes that the agricultural sector alone cannot improve households’ income, ensure food security, and alleviate poverty in the study area. Thus, rural development policies and strategies should focus on promoting income‐ generating activities besides agricultural activities in rural areas to improve the overall wellbeing of the rural communities.

The banking industry is one of the most important pillars of the economy of any country, which plays a decisive role in the economic development and growth of countries due to the provision of various financial and credit services. With the globalization of the banking industry, it is very important to use income diversification strategies to improve value and efficiency. Using the data and information obtained from the financial statements of banks, this research has investigated the effect of income diversification strategies on efficiency in banks admitted to the Tehran Stock Exchange. The statistical population of this research includes all the banks admitted to the Tehran Stock Exchange during the period between 2011 and 2021, and 10 banks were selected as a statistical sample using the targeted elimination method. In this research, the data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach was used to measure efficiency, and the autoregressive model approach with distributed intervals (ARDL) was used to estimate the research model. The present research findings showed that the strategy of income diversification (interest and non-interest) both in the short term and in the long term has a positive and significant effect on the efficiency of banks admitted to the Tehran Stock Exchange.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of income diversification strategies on market power in Iranian banking system during the period of 2015-2020. The fitting method of the present study was the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) model. Market power in banking system is measured by the Lerner index using the Translog stochastic frontier cost function. Two adjusted Herfindahl-Hirschman indices are used to measure income diversification strategies, including interest and non-interest income diversifications. The results showed that the non-interest income diversification strategy had a significant positive effect on market power in the banking system; however, the effect of the interest income diversification strategy on the market power was not confirmed. IntroductionIn recent years, one of the most important issues considered by researchers in industrial economics in the field of banking is analysis of the interbank market structure, market power of banking system and impacts of internal and external factors that have been widely used by policy makers and managers. It helps the banking industry to become more competitive. On the other hand, it can be seen that the banking industry has faced fundamental, rapid, and complex changes, including mergers, acquisitions, structural reforms, deregulation, and increasing competition. Many commercial banks have been pursuing income diversification strategies for maintaining their positions in the market in response to increasing competition. In fact, the competition between financial markets for optimal allocation of financial resources has attracted more depositors towards banks. It has made banks increase their banking facilities for applicants by increasing creativity via various tools. One of the most widely used diversification strategies is income diversification. The income structure includes the two types of interest and non-interest incomes. The structure of interest income includes the lending and traditional activities of banks, while that of non-interest income consists of fee income, commission, foreign exchange income, etc. There are few and contradictory studies on the relationship between the market power of banking system and diversification strategies. Given the contradictory points of view, this question will be raised: What effects do the income diversification strategies have on the market power of banking system in the Iranian banking industry?   Method and DataThe sample of this study included all the banks in the Iranian banking network operating in Iran during the period of 2015-2020. For this purpose, the required information of 20 banks was collected from their financial statements shown in Codal.ir website. The economic data were also extracted from the Central Bank website. The method used in this research was the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM). In this model, the dependent variable is added with an interval on the right side of the model, which leads to explaining the dynamic effects in the model. The estimated compatibility of the GMM is measured by Sargan test. FindingsFirst, to determine the choice of method between the Pool and Panel or the Fixed and Random Effects method, the Chow test was performed. The results showed that the value of F-Limer statistic was 2.38 and its significance level was 0.0050. Therefore, the panel data were accepted. The Hausman test was then used to distinguish the fixed effects versus random effects. The result of this test was 32.31 ƛ2 and its significance level was 0.0001, which indicated that the model had to be estimated by using the fixed effects. In the next step, the GMM was fitted. The results showed that the variable of market power or competition with one lag had a significance level of less than 0.05. Hence, it had a positive and significant effect on the dependent variable (0.055(. The results also revealed that the non-interest income diversification with a coefficient of 0.21 and significance level of less than 0.05 had a positive and significant impact on the market power of the banking system (0.0094). The findings showed that all the control variables, except for the firm size, had a positive and significant effect on the market power of the banking system. Conclusion and discussion In this study, the effects of income diversification strategies on the market power of banking system were investigated in the Iranian banking industry during the period 1393-2014. The results demonstrated that non-interest income diversification had a positive and significant effect on the competition and market power of the banking system. However, the effect of interest income diversification on the market power of the banking system was not confirmed. It could be argued that commercial banks could create values for themselves based on non-interest income diversification by providing extensive financial services to customers and motivating them to use them so as to create the favorable market power and gain a competitive advantage. To strengthen this strategy, it is suggested that policymakers and legislators provide a better environment for foreign exchange by formulating and approving facilitative policies and creating the necessary infrastructure to cooperate with other banks in the neighboring countries. Banks can earn non-interest income by updating their services and coming up with new and innovative ideas to provide new services and strengthen their competitive positions in banking system. In the future research, the effects of various diversification strategies on market power in the developing and developed countries can be assessed and compared.

Export diversification is a preventive measure against trade shocks, which is defined as an increase in the number of export goods and a decrease in a country's dependence on a single source for exports, and it can help macroeconomic stability. This index is an essential aspect of the development process not only for rentier governments but also for all countries, which can affect income inequality in various ways. Therefore, the study tries to investigate the effect of export diversity on income inequality and the impacts of political risk on the interaction between these two variables, in 81 countries with high and low political risk using the panel quantile model with fixed effects during the years 2000-2019. The results show that export diversity increases income inequality in both groups of countries under investigation. However, export diversification effects on income inequality is greater in countries with high political risk. Therefore, in these countries, the more skilled labor has been used to compensate for the diversification costs and has caused a high wage gap. Industrialization and increasing the degree of trade openness reduce income inequality. Foreign direct investment increases income inequality in both categories of countries. GDP per capita has a non-linear inverse U-shaped effect on income inequality, that Kuznets' hypothesis is confirmed in both categories of countries.